Jane Austens Approach to the Character Emma in Pride and...

Jane Austens Approach to the Character Emma in Pride and Prejudice Handsome, clever and rich are the complimentary words Jane Austen lavishes upon Emma; accurate as they may be, they paint a picture contrary to the Emma portrayed during the first half of the novel. Set against the nineteenth century patriarchal society, structured by the privileges and constraints of money and status, both of which she acquires, a complex mental journey faces her. The journey, however is one she is oblivious to and one to which the predominate barrier is her apparent good fortune. Jane Austen plays the role of an omniscient narrator providing dialogue whilst also supplying constant commentary into the thought†¦show more content†¦Mr knightley and Emma engage in a heated discussion over Emmas involvement in Harriets decision to decline Robert Martins marriage proposal, you wrote her answer. Mr Knightley tries to educate her in matters of the heart, but Emmas intelligence deceives her into justifying her actions, I should not feel I had done wrong. She is blinded by her plans to better Harriet and cannot even begin comprehending how her actions affect others, at this point in her journey she cannot even entertain the idea of changing her ways. Unsatisfied with Mr Martin as a prospective suitor for Harriet, she selects Mr Elton, the local priests, as being a more appropriate match due not to their compatibility but to his wealth. She takes the idea, supposes it and will make everything bend to it, using a series of methods including requesting Mr Elton write a riddle and drawing a portrait of Harriet she manipulates Harriets and Mr Eltons thoughts to suit her plans. Having been warned of Mr Eltons undesirable attributes, he knows the value of a good income she is still persistent in forming the match. The first sign of progress in Emmas journey appears following her miss- interpretation of Mr Eltons manners. Austen provides Emmas reaction toShow MoreRelatedJane Austen s Criticism And Judgment Of Socially Constructed Beliefs Of Women1199 Words   |  5 Pagesunconventional female characters that defied social customs, Jane Austen utilized her literary pieces as a framework to critique misogynist beliefs formed by society. Living in a patriarchal society dominated by men and harsh gender roles in England, Jane Austen sought to transform cultural values. She used the ideology of marriage and her heroines’ refusal of courtship to effectively and strategically chastise sexist views on gender and marriage. Her development of defiant characters showcases her strongRead MoreFeminist Undertones in Pride and Prejudice2078 Words   |  9 PagesFEMINIST UNDERTONES IN ‘PRIDE AND PREJUDICE’ Introduction Jane Austen authored the novel ‘Pride and Prejudice’ in 1813, a period in the social history of England that saw most women as best equipped for the private and domestic realm. An ideal woman was the picture of chastity, innocence and compliancy. Even women authors in this period were expected to adhere to genres that were considered to be solely their domain- the refined arts, householdRead MoreManners in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen3437 Words   |  14 Pages Pride and Prejudice Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice not only established her historical importance among scholars and critics, but continues to remain popular. Pride and Prejudice, a comedy of manners, was published in 1813, and is a staple of the English literature. It recreates the social world of the landed gentry of early 19th-century England and embodies the theme that preconceptions and egotism can overcome true love. Pride and Prejudice is somewhat autobiographical; emphasizes the key elementsRead MoreJane Austen’s Novels and the Contemporary Social and Literary Conventions.12979 Words   |  52 Pages2.3 The Gothic Romance. 13 3. Jane Austen and Her Novels in relation to the Contemporary Literature. 15 3.1. Austen’s Criticism about the Contemporary Fiction. 15 3.2. Jane Austen as a Conservative Writer and as a Social Critic. 16 3.3. Austen’s writing in her own perception. 17 4. Pride and Prejudice. 20 4.1. Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy – the Reversed Ideals. 20 22 5. Emma 23 5.1. Emma the heroine. 23 5.2. Men of sense and silly wives 26 5.3. Emma as the unusual learning. 28 ConclusionsRead MoreEssay Significance of Jane Austen1948 Words   |  8 PagesJane Austen is celebrated worldwide, her books have led to movies, television series, and those who admire her life; her talent allowed her to capture her readers with the themes, love, marriage, and expectations of 19th century women. On December 16th 1775, English literature changed with the birth of Jane Austen. One of eight; her father encouraged her to grow and prosper at a young age. She was closest with her only sister Cassandra. The Austen children were educated mainly at home, primarilyRead MoreSignificance of Jane Austen Essay1979 Words   |  8 Pagestechniques and variation of approach to grasp the attention of her readers. She also frequently writes about the expectations of women in 19th century women. On December 16th 1775, English literature changed with the birth of Jane Austen. One of eight; her father encouraged her to grow and thrive at a young age. Jane and her only sister Cassandra were inseparable. â€Å"Cassandra (1773-1845), was Janes closest friend throughout her life and was known in the family for her steady character and sound judgmentRead MoreThe Rise of the Novels in the Eighteenth Century4179 Words   |  17 Pagesand  Amelia  (1751). We may add to the list of his fictional works  Jonathan Wild the Great  (1743), a cynically ironical novel which, as Legouis says, must have been written after a fit of gloom.† Fieldings novels are characterised by a fresh and realistic moral approach which admits occasionally of animalism and ribaldry, a searching realism, good-humoured social satire, and healthy sentiment In his abundant and coarse vigour, his common sense and unflinching realism, and his delight in physical beauty (especiallyRead MoreThe Life and Writings of Jane Austen Essay1494 Words   |  6 Pagesabundance of British writers whose works are considered legendary. One of the dominant writers of this era was that of Jane Austen. Her literary works surpassed greatness. Jane Austen captured the hearts of writers around the world through her English derived stories, comical and witty writing style, and her ability to draw inferences from her personal life into her novels. Jane Austen was born on December 16, 1775 to George and Cassandra Austen. Her mother, Cassandra Austen, was born to a higherRead MoreIn Jane Austen’s Persuasion love and family is a major thing I learned to see and control just1300 Words   |  6 PagesIn Jane Austen’s Persuasion love and family is a major thing I learned to see and control just because of this book. Jane Austen is a very interesting woman. She is 7 out of 8 kids. Her sister and her Cassandra were very close. Both had plenty of chances of marring and having a family. By 25, she had written 3 books, Persuasion not being one of them. She had written her last book in 1818, Persuasion. In my eyes Jane was a normal England girl. She was homed school, had a big loving family, and perusedRead MoreËÆ∠«Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ€žÃƒ ¤Ãƒâ€šÃƒâ€¡Ã¢â€° ¤ÃƒÅ Ãƒâ€" ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢Ë† Ãƒ ©Ãƒâ€šÃƒâ€¦Ãƒ ¨Ãƒâ€¹ÃƒÅ¸Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ€žÃƒ £Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã¢Ë† Ã¢â€°  Ãƒ Ãƒ ¶Ãƒâ€˜Ãƒ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ±ÃƒÅ Ãƒâ€°Ãƒâ€"ËßÇÂà ­Ãƒ ¥Ãƒâ€ šÃ‚ ©Ãƒ ¶Ãƒâ€šÃƒÅ¸Ã‚ ªÃƒâ€¹ÃƒÅ¸Ãƒâ€¡4201 Words   |  17 PagesÃ¥ ° Ã¨ ¯ ´Ã©â‚¬Å¡Ã¨ ¿â€¡Ã¥ ¯ ¹Ã¥â€ºâ€ºÃ§ § Ã¤ ¸ Ã¥ Å'Ã¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »Ã¥â€™Å'çˆ ±Ã¦Æ'…çš„æ  Ã¥â€ â„¢Ã¯ ¼Å'è § £Ã¦Å¾ Ã¥â€™Å'æŽ ¢Ã¨ ® ¨Ã¯ ¼Å'充分ä ½â€œÃ§Å½ °Ã¤ ºâ€ Ã¤ ½Å"者的çˆ ±Ã¦Æ'…å’Å'Ã¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »Ã¨ §â€šÃ£â‚¬â€šÃ¨ ¿â„¢Ã§ ¯â€¡Ã¨ ® ºÃ¦â€"‡å ° ±Ã¦Ëœ ¯Ã©â‚¬Å¡Ã¨ ¿â€¡Ã¥ ¯ ¹Ã¨ ¿â„¢Ã¥â€ºâ€ºÃ¦ ® µÃ¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¨ ¯ ¦Ã§ »â€ Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¥Ë†â€ Ã¦Å¾ Ã¯ ¼Å'æ  ¥Ã¦Å½ ¢Ã¨ ® ¨Ã£â‚¬Å Ã¥â€š ²Ã¦â€¦ ¢Ã¤ ¸Å½Ã¥  Ã¨ § Ã£â‚¬â€¹Ã¤ ¸ ­Ã§Å¡â€žÃ§Ë† ±Ã¦Æ'…è §â€šÃ¥â€™Å'Ã¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »Ã¨ §â€šÃ£â‚¬â€šÃ©â€š £Ã¥ ° ±Ã¦Ëœ ¯Ã¯ ¼Å¡Ã¦ â€¹Ã§Ë† ±Ã¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »Ã¤ ¸Å½Ã¨ ´ ¢Ã¤ º §Ã¥â€™Å'ç ¤ ¾Ã¤ ¼Å¡Ã¥Å" °Ã¤ ½ Ã§â€º ¸Ã¤ ºâ€™Ã¥â€¦ ³Ã¨ â€Ã¯ ¼Å'ä ½â€ Ã¦ â€¹Ã§Ë† ±Ã¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »Ã¤ ¸ Ã¨Æ' ½Ã¤ »â€¦Ã¥ â€"å† ³Ã¤ ºÅ½Ã¨ ´ ¢Ã¤ º §Ã¥â€™Å'ç ¤ ¾Ã¤ ¼Å¡Ã¥Å" °Ã¤ ½ ,æ ­ £Ã§ ¡ ®Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »Ã¥ ºâ€Ã¥ ½â€œÃ¥ » ºÃ§ «â€¹Ã¥Å" ¨Ã§â€º ¸Ã¤ ºâ€™Ã§Ë† ±Ã¦â€¦â€¢Ã£â‚¬ Ã§â€º ¸Ã¤ ºâ€™Ã¥ °Å Ã©â€¡ Ã§Å¡â€žÃ¥Å¸ ºÃ§ ¡â‚¬Ã¤ ¸Å Ã£â‚¬ ‚å ¥ ¹Ã¦â€" ¢Ã¥  Ã¥ ¯ ¹Ã¤ ¸ ºÃ©â€™ ±Ã¨â‚¬Å'ç »â€œÃ¥ ©Å¡Ã¯ ¼Å'ä ¹Å¸Ã¥  Ã¥ ¯ ¹Ã¨ ½ »Ã§Å½â€¡Ã§ »â€œÃ¥ ©Å¡Ã¯ ¼Å'Ã¥ ¼ ºÃ¨ °Æ'Ã¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »Ã¤ ¸ ­Ã¦â€žÅ¸Ã¦Æ'…å›  Ã§ ´  Ã§Å¡â€žÃ©â€¡ Ã¨ ¦ Ã¦â‚¬ §Ã£â‚¬â€š å… ³Ã©â€ ®Ã¨ ¯  çˆ ±Ã¦Æ'…; Ã¥ ©Å¡Ã¥ § »; 金é’ ±; ç ¤ ¾Ã¤ ¼Å¡Ã¥Å" °Ã¤ ½     Introduction Pride and prejudice the book about commonplace things and ordinary people, is one of Jane Austen’s famous book, being the representative of realistic literature. It portrays, with special sensitive characteristic of female writers, the life and ideas of middle class who live in countryside. This novel

The Act Of Being Great - 950 Words

The act of being â€Å"great† is what makes one a distinctive leader. As there are many great leaders, not all have what it takes. I believe to be great it takes self-confidence, compassion and risk-taking. Without these three attributes, we would not see our leaders as the same key people they are today. There have been a range of aspiring leaders from history to present day. The essential goal is not what one contributes to society, but how they use their gifts and talents to change it. It is very crucial for a leader to show self-confidence in the effort of becoming great. Self-confidence is the trust of one’s abilities and judgment. By using this trait, one expresses themselves as strong and powerful, not just for themselves but others around them. Expressing this trait is being aware of daily obstacles,and still remaining inner strength. Madam C.J. Walker, who was originally named Sarah Breedlove, was the first African American entrepreneur. Growing up, times were rough for her. She was a child of 6, became an orphan around the age of 7, and married young, which caused an early baby. Walker, struggled raising her baby at a young age, and was already in the negative being that she was poor and now had to provide for them both. At the age of 21, she began selling and advertising her own products. Walker came far in life based on two qualities, one was unselfishness. This woman knew she had a choice to make with having a baby at such a young age, she could ei ther raise andShow MoreRelatedThe American Of Revolt Against Great Britain1540 Words   |  7 Pagesdecided to revolt against Great Britain, but some of the more major causes of the American revolution were ‘ the banning of arms ’, the very unpopular Stamp Act, the Declaratory Act, and the Boston Tea Port Acts. Another unpopular Act enforced on the colonies, by His Majesty of Great Britain, was the now-famous Stamp Act. The Stamp Act was a set of laws created by the King and parliament, saying that the American colonists had to pay more taxes than the people in Great Britain were paying, as aRead MoreWhat the Stamp Act Really Meant Essay1639 Words   |  7 PagesThe central thesis of my paper is the Stamp Act and how it was brought about and what it meant to the American Colonies. As well as why it was necessary. February 6th, 1765 George Grenville came forth in Parliament to propose his Stamp Bill. Not knowing that it would forever be a significant part of history. The Act was a tax on every piece of printed paper the colony used. Including, legal documents, licenses, and even playing cards. The tax also had to be paid with British currency. Colonial paperRead MoreConflict Between Great Britain And The British Colonies843 Words   |  4 PagesThompson 1 Teona Thompson Ms. Puckerine World and U.S History June 1, 2015 Conflict between Great Britain and the British Colonies On a quest to expand their empire, Great Britain tried to colonize any land they could find. The British settlements established on the east coast of North America include Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island, and were founded between 1607Read MoreThe Colonial Incentives for Independence Essays833 Words   |  4 PagesThe Colonial Incentives for Independence July 4th of 1776 is arguably the most significant day in American history. On this day, the thirteen British colonies won their independence from Great Britain, their mother country at the time. The war that allowed the colonies to gain their independence was, of course, the American Revolution. One reason the colonists’ declaration of independence was understandable was because after an extended period of salutary neglect, the British started imposingRead MoreHow Significant Was the Great Reform Act of 1832?1521 Words   |  7 PagesHow significant was the Great Reform Act of 1832? The Great Reform Act passed in 1832 was brought in due to a number of inside and outside pressures. For example, the fall of the Tories and the economic crisis of 1829-30. Britain pre 1832 was known as one of the most unrepresentative countries. English counties elected 82 MPs-only men who owned property worth over 40 shillings a year could elect these MPs (only the ruling classes.)Boroughs or towns elected 394 MPs-most voters were in southern EnglandRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Henry V1445 Words   |  6 PagesIn times where kings were references to God, and tariffs were set upon to pardon sins. In which the Great Chain of being dictated the order on to which place you ought to be or were born into. William Shakespeare’s Henry V, narrates the story of one of England’s greatest monarchs. Shakespeare, exploits a specific time period in Medieval History, The battle of Agincourt, France versus England, in Henry’s lead to what we sought and claimed the French Crown, to whom he was denied his but laterRead MoreThe Stamp Act that Led to the American Revolution Essay580 Words   |  3 Pagesfor Great Britain and the massive debt will start the revolutionary war. The massive debt happened right after the French and Indian war. Great Britain was 122 million pounds in debt. That is why they tried to tax the colonies. The taxes were called acts. This payed off part of the debt but the taxing didnt come to a pleasant end for Great Britain. One of the acts was the stamp act. This was a way to force the colonies to help pay off the war debt. The British pushed the Stamp Act throughRead MoreEssay on A Time for Tea1584 Words   |  7 Pagesthe lowest level possible in the Colonies. Because of Great Britain’s involvement in the French and Indian War, Great Britain accumulated a large amount of debt owed to the East-India Company. As an attempt to reduce its debt, Great Britain imposed many acts of taxation on the Colonies. Great Britain viewed the Colonies key to repay its debt. One of the significant acts imposed by Great Britain was the Townshend Acts. This particular act placed taxes on imported materials such as glass, leadRead MoreThe American Revolution : A Political Upheaval That Took Place Between 1763 And 17751053 Words   |  5 Pagesbetween The American colonies and Great Britain which ultimately lead to America’s independence. Proclamation of 1763, an order from King George III pro hibiting all settlement west of the Appalachian mountains. Through miscommunication the relationship between the colonies and Britain became rough as the colonist believed that this boundary was solely enforced to make regulation and control easy for Britain, where the colonist wanted to expand westward. The Sugar Act of 1764, the first attempt by theRead MoreThe American War of Independence665 Words   |  3 PagesThe American Revolutionary War, also known as the War of Independence, began on April 19th, 1775 with the Battle of Lexington and Concord. The American Revolution was a war between the thirteen colonies and Great Britian. The colonies wanted to gain independence from Great Britian. It was also a rebellion against the monarchy, which lead to the establishment of the republic [CROSS]. The outcome of the war was a victory for the thirteen colonies. The colonist gained independence and British recognition

Martin Luther’s 95 Theses Essay free essay sample

Martin Luther was very influential to Western history and religious reformation. Martin Luther was a monk and a scholar, who in 1517 wrote the 95 Theses. The 95 Theses was a document that exposed the Catholic Churches practice of accepting payments to absolve sins, it is also widely regarded as the primary means for the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther wanted his readers to remember that the Bible and its words are essentially the central religious authority. The Bible is basically a roadmap to heaven, it guides the faithful on how to live and treat others. Martin Luther stressed that humans may reach salvation only by being faithful to God, and not by their deeds. Many faithful Christians were also upset by these corrupt practices committed by Popes and other Clergy of the Catholic Church. The faithful lived their lives according to the Bible. The wealthy could occasionally indulge in sinful behaviors, and because they were financially able to pay for pardons, they were forgiven. We will write a custom essay sample on Martin Luther’s 95 Theses Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This created some tensions between the social classes. Martin Luther was not the first to bring attention to these corrupt practices of the Catholic Church. His 95 Theses defied some of the teachings of the Catholic Church on the nature of penance and the authority of the Pope and other Clergy. Some say that Martin Luther helped to divide the Catholic Church and allowed Protestantism to flourish. Protestantism was shaped by Martin Luther’s ideas and writings. Martin Luther did not intend for his Thesis to be viewed as an attack on the Pope. He simply wanted to question the actions of some Popes and the use of money by the Catholic Church. His Theses also addressed Tuzinski 2 some of the hierarchy issues within the church. In many respects, Martin Luther was a man that was ahead of his time. He wanted to inform his readers of the psychological, spiritual and material truths behind the abuses of buying and selling indulgences. Martin Luther was not trying to create his own religion or recruit new followers. His purpose was to uphold the truth for the cause of Christ. Martin Luther’s 95 Theses helped change things for the Catholic Church as well. Accepting cash and gifts in hopes of forgiveness was frowned upon. Popes and other Clergy were reminded that the only one that could pardon someone from sin is God himself. Martin Luther felt that every faithful Christian should receive forgiveness and pardon. It should not be given to those that participated in rituals or attempted to pay for it.

The Society of the Spectacle Review Essay Example

The Society of the Spectacle Review Paper Essay on The Society of the Spectacle I do not think many people could read at least one chapter of this book, and not even because of its rarity (the book is almost impossible to obtain in Russia), but rather because of its absolute unreadable. For example, several years ago, she read (and later a brief retelling) is a punishment at the Philosophical Faculty of St. Petersburg State University for a stroll semester. Guy Debord revolutionary despises the values ​​of modern society. And his book is a slap in the face to all of us, living in a capitalist society, and not wishing to correct or anything. Society of the Spectacle calls to reflect on our values, think about those who govern us, to think about, and whether it is time to build communism? Yes, of course he is a Marxist, like any self-respecting revolutionary mid-twentieth century. And the fact that todays young people are not reading Guy Debord, is first of all shows not her intellectual degradation, but rather the fact that the number of radicalized young people decreases and its probably for the best. We will write a custom essay sample on The Society of the Spectacle Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Society of the Spectacle Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Society of the Spectacle Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In spite of all his genius philosophy, Deborah absolutely untalented writer. His book, written in a very dry suggestions sometimes extends over several pages, which is why it is very difficult to focus on the fact that it was the basic idea. In fact, all this is very similar to an incoherent jumble of interesting ideas. In conclusion, I say that if you often go to different conferences, you might notice that the Society of the Spectacle is one of the most quoted works. The bottom line is that this work or who do not understand (not the professor, not students, not writers), all just pretend, and so referring to it, you can beat your opponent in the dispute, so that at least for the sake of this book and is worth reading.

Free Essays on American Economics

Most of the problems of the United states are related to the economy. One of the major issues facing the country today is social security. The United States was one of the last major industrialized nations to establish a social security system. In 1911, Wisconsin passed the first state workers compensation law to be held constitutional. At that time, most Americans believed the government should not have to care for the aged, disabled or needy. But such attitudes changed during the Great Depression in the 1930's. In 1935, Congress passed the Social Security Act. This law became the basis of the U.S. social insurance system. It provided cash benefits to only retired workers in commerce or industry. In 1939, Congress amended the act to benefit and dependent children of retired workers and widows and children of deceased workers . In 1950, the act began to cover many farm and domestic workers, non professional self employed workers, and many state and municipal employees. Coverage became nearly universal in 1956, when lawyers and other professional workers came under the system. Social security is a government program that helps workers and retired workers and their families achieve a degree of economic security. Social security also called social insurance (Robertson p. 33), provides cash payments to help replace income lost as a result of retirement, unemployment, disability, or death. The program also helps pay the cost of medical care for people age 65 or older and for some disabled workers. About one-sixth of the people in the United States receive social security benefits. People become eligible to receive benefits by working in a certain period in a job covered by social security. Employers and workers finance the program through payroll taxes. Participation in the social security system is required for about 95 percent of all U.S. workers. Social security d... Free Essays on American Economics Free Essays on American Economics Most of the problems of the United states are related to the economy. One of the major issues facing the country today is social security. The United States was one of the last major industrialized nations to establish a social security system. In 1911, Wisconsin passed the first state workers compensation law to be held constitutional. At that time, most Americans believed the government should not have to care for the aged, disabled or needy. But such attitudes changed during the Great Depression in the 1930's. In 1935, Congress passed the Social Security Act. This law became the basis of the U.S. social insurance system. It provided cash benefits to only retired workers in commerce or industry. In 1939, Congress amended the act to benefit and dependent children of retired workers and widows and children of deceased workers . In 1950, the act began to cover many farm and domestic workers, non professional self employed workers, and many state and municipal employees. Coverage became nearly universal in 1956, when lawyers and other professional workers came under the system. Social security is a government program that helps workers and retired workers and their families achieve a degree of economic security. Social security also called social insurance (Robertson p. 33), provides cash payments to help replace income lost as a result of retirement, unemployment, disability, or death. The program also helps pay the cost of medical care for people age 65 or older and for some disabled workers. About one-sixth of the people in the United States receive social security benefits. People become eligible to receive benefits by working in a certain period in a job covered by social security. Employers and workers finance the program through payroll taxes. Participation in the social security system is required for about 95 percent of all U.S. workers. Social security d...

Stable Isotope Analysis in Archaeology

Stable Isotope Analysis in Archaeology Stable isotope analysis is a scientific technique which is used by archaeologists and other scholars to collect information from an animals bones to identify the photosynthesis process of the plants it consumed during its lifetime. That information is enormously useful in a wide number of applications, from determining the dietary habits of ancient hominid ancestors to tracing the agricultural origins of seized cocaine and illegally poached rhinoceros horn.   What are Stable Isotopes? All of the earth and its atmosphere is made up of atoms of different elements, such as oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Each of these elements has several forms, based on their atomic weight (the number of neutrons in each atom). For example, 99 percent of all carbon in our atmosphere exists in the form called Carbon-12; but the remaining one percent carbon is made up of two several slightly different forms of carbon, called Carbon-13 and Carbon-14. Carbon-12 (abbreviated 12C) has an atomic weight of 12, which is made up of 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons- the 6 electrons dont add anything to the atomic weight. Carbon-13 (13C) still has 6 protons and 6 electrons, but it has 7 neutrons. Carbon-14 (14C) has 6 protons and 8 neutrons, which is too heavy to hold together in a stable way, and it emits energy to get rid of the excess, which is why scientists call it radioactive. All three forms react the exact same way- if you combine carbon with oxygen you always get carbon dioxide, no matter how many neutrons there are. The 12C and 13C forms are stable- that is to say, they don’t change over time. Carbon-14, on the other hand, is not stable but instead decays at a known rate- because of that, we can use its remaining ratio to Carbon-13 to calculate radiocarbon dates, but that’s another issue entirely. Inheriting Constant Ratios The ratio of Carbon-12 to Carbon-13 is constant in the earth’s atmosphere. There are always one hundred 12C atoms to one 13C atom. During the process of photosynthesis, plants absorb the carbon atoms in the earth’s atmosphere, water, and soil, and store them in the cells of their leaves, fruits, nuts, and roots. But, the ratio of the forms of carbon gets altered as part of the photosynthesis process.   During photosynthesis, plants alter the 100 12C/1 13C chemical ratio differently in different climatic regions. Plants that live in regions with lots of sun and little water have relatively fewer 12C atoms in their cells (compared to 13C) than do plants that live in forests or wetlands. Scientists categorize plants by the version of photosynthesis they use into groups called C3, C4, and CAM.   Are You What You Have Eaten? The ratio of 12C/13C is hardwired into the plant’s cells, and- here’s the best part- as the cells get passed up the food chain (i.e., the roots, leaves, and fruit are eaten by animals and humans), the ratio of 12C to 13C remains virtually unchanged as it is in turn stored in the bones, teeth, and hair of the animals and humans. In other words, if you can determine the ratio of 12C to 13C that is stored in an animals bones, you can figure out whether the plants they ate used C4, C3, or CAM processes, and therefore, what the environment of the plants was like. In other words, assuming you eat locally, where you live is hardwired into your bones by what you eat. That measuring is accomplished by mass spectrometer analysis. Carbon is not by a long shot the only element used by stable isotope researchers. Currently, researchers are looking at measuring the ratios of stable isotopes of oxygen, nitrogen, strontium, hydrogen, sulfur, lead, and many other elements that are processed by plants and animals. That research has led to a simply incredible diversity of human and animal dietary information. Earliest Studies The very first archaeological application of stable isotope research was in the 1970s, by South African archaeologist Nikolaas van der Merwe, who was excavating at the African Iron Age site of Kgopolwe 3, one of several sites in the Transvaal Lowveld of South Africa, called Phalaborwa. Van de Merwe found a human male skeleton in an ash heap that did not look like the other burials from the village. The skeleton was different, morphologically, from the other inhabitants of Phalaborwa, and he had been buried in a completely different manner than the typical villager. The man looked like a Khoisan; and Khoisans should not have been at Phalaborwa, who were ancestral Sotho tribesmen. Van der Merwe and his colleagues J. C. Vogel and Philip Rightmire decided to look at the chemical signature in his bones, and the initial results suggested that the man was a sorghum farmer from a Khoisan village who somehow had died at Kgopolwe 3. Applying Stable Isotopes in Archaeology The technique and results of the Phalaborwa study were discussed at a seminar at SUNY Binghamton where van der Merwe was teaching. At the time, SUNY was investigating Late Woodland burials, and together they decided it would be interesting to see if the addition of maize (American corn, a subtropical C4 domesticate) to the diet would be identifiable in people who formerly only had access to C3 plants: and it was.   That study became the first published archaeological study applying stable isotope analysis, in 1977. They compared the stable carbon isotope ratios (13C/12C) in the collagen of human ribs from an Archaic (2500-2000 BCE) and an Early Woodland (400–100 BCE) archaeological site in New York (i.e., before corn arrived in the region) with the 13C/12C ratios in ribs from a Late Woodland (ca. 1000–1300 CE) and a Historic Period site (after corn arrived) from the same area. They were able to show that the chemical signatures in the ribs were an indication that the maize was not present in the early periods, but had become a staple food by the time of the Late Woodland. Based on this demonstration and available evidence for the distribution of the stable carbon isotopes in nature, Vogel and van der Merwe suggested that the technique could be used to detect maize agriculture in the Woodlands and tropical forests of the Americas; determine the importance of marine foods in the diets of coastal communities; document changes in vegetation cover over time in savannas on the basis of browsing/grazing ratios of mixed-feeding herbivores; and possibly to determine origins in forensic investigations. New Applications of Stable Isotope Research Since 1977, applications of stable isotope analysis have exploded in number and breadth, using the stable isotope ratios of the light elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur in human and animal bone (collagen and apatite), tooth enamel and hair, as well as in pottery residues baked onto the surface or absorbed into the ceramic wall to determine diets and water sources. Light stable isotope ratios (usually of carbon and nitrogen) have been used to investigate such dietary components as marine creatures (e.g. seals, fish, and shellfish), various domesticated plants such as maize and millet; and cattle dairying (milk residues in pottery), and mother’s milk (age of weaning, detected in the tooth row). Dietary studies have been done on hominins from the present day to our ancient ancestors Homo habilis and the Australopithecines. Other isotopic research has focused on determining the geographic origins of things. Various stable isotope ratios in combination, sometimes including the isotopes of heavy elements like strontium and lead, have been used to determine whether the residents of ancient cities were immigrants or were born locally; to trace the origins of poached ivory and rhino horn to break up smuggling rings; and to determine the agricultural origins of cocaine, heroin, and the cotton fiber used to make fake $100 bills.   Another example of isotopic fractionation that has a useful application involves rain, which contains the stable hydrogen isotopes 1H and 2H (deuterium) and the oxygen isotopes 16O and 18O. Water evaporates in large quantities at the equator and the water vapor disperses to the north and south. As the H2O falls back to earth, the heavy isotopes rain out first. By the time it falls as snow at the poles, the moisture is severely depleted in the heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen. The global distribution of these isotopes in the rain (and in tap water) can be mapped and the origins of the consumers can be determined by isotopic analysis of hair.   Sources and Recent Studies Grant, Jennifer. Of Hunting and Herding: Isotopic Evidence in Wild and Domesticated Camelids from the Southern Argentine Puna (2120–420years BP). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 11 (2017): 29–37. Print.Iglesias, Carlos, et al. Stable Isotope Analysis Confirms Substantial Differences between Subtropical and Temperate Shallow Lake Food Webs. Hydrobiologia 784.1 (2017): 111–23. Print.Katzenberg, M. Anne, and Andrea L. Waters-Rist. Stable Isotope Analysis: A Tool for Studying Past Diet, Demography, and Life History. Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton. Eds. Katzenberg, M. Anne, and Anne L. Grauer. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc., 2019. 467–504. Print.Price, T. Douglas, et al. Isotopic Provenancing of the . Antiquity 90.352 (2016): 1022–37. Print.Salme Ship Burials in Pre-Viking Age EstoniaSealy, J. C., and N. J. van der Merwe. On Approaches to Dietary Reconstruction in the Western Cape: Are You What You Have Eaten?- a Reply to Parkington. Journal of Archaeological Science 19.4 (1992): 459–66. Print. Somerville, Andrew D., et al. Diet and Gender in the Tiwanaku Colonies: Stable Isotope Analysis of Human Bone Collagen and Apatite from Moquegua, Peru. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 158.3 (2015): 408–22. Print.Sugiyama, Nawa, Andrew D. Somerville, and Margaret J. Schoeninger. Stable Isotopes and Zooarchaeology at Teotihuacan, Mexico Reveal Earliest Evidence of Wild Carnivore Management in Mesoamerica. PLoS ONE 10.9 (2015): e0135635. Print.Vogel, J.C., and Nikolaas J. Van der Merwe. Isotopic Evidence for Early Maize Cultivation in New York State. American Antiquity 42.2 (1977): 238–42. Print.

Petroleum Product Engineering Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Petroleum Product Engineering - Coursework Example According to the STEO report of 2015, the inventory for the global oil has been projected to maintain an average of 1.3 million bbl/day. This oil inventory is on top of the average increase of 0.9 million bbl/d in 2014 (IEA, 2015). Despite the overwhelming supply of oil for the global consumption, the discovery of potential oil reserves never stops. Over the decades, the oil reserves have explored the offshore oil resources, where the potentials are high. The offshore is considered as the next frontier when it comes to the global oil supply. The field of petroleum engineering continues to find innovation that focuses on the discovery of oil reserves, processes for oil extraction and refinery, drilling mechanisms, and other related activities. Offshore drilling is one of the greatest innovations for the petroleum engineering that contributed greatly to the continuous supplication of oil in the whole world. Offshore drilling technology is the mechanical process that involves the drilling of a wellbore along the seabed. This technology is specifically carried out for exploration purposes with its wide applications for discovering oil reserves found along the seabed (Beckman, 2014). The offshore technology in the oil industry started in the year 1950s where the first technologies include semi-submersible rigs and deepwater drillships. Throughout the years, the technologies for offshore drilling keeps on advancing, where there are various types of offshore facilities made available for application in various depths of water. Since its discovery, the offshore drilling technology consistently grows over the years. In fact, it is considered as one of the main sources for oil and petroleum for two decades and more. In the year 2005, the top most producer of oil using offshore facilities comes from the Persian Gulf (Sandrea and Sandrea, 2007). The Persian Gulf is now considered as the world’s top oil producer where the largest oil reserve are